Contributions of moral thinkers and philosophers from India and world.

• Philosophy is the study of the principles which underlie all knowledge.  

• Virtues and Good conduct –  
• Virtues are good traits of character & vices are bad traits of character. 
• Character and conduct of a person are intimately related. 
• Moral character of a person is formed when he does good actions consistently and persistently. 
• Virtue can be cultivated. 
• Virtues denote excellence of human character, while vices are defects of character. 
• Virtues – Morality of being. 
• Actions and duty – Morality of doing. 
• Virtuous person is not only Good but he also does good acts. 

• Socrates and Plato 
• 1) Plato and Socrates adopted the “Method of dialectic” – Reasoning with Q & A session.  Socrates – All men are equal.  Dialectic method is a mature method to elicit knowledge. 
• 2) Sophists at that time used propaganda to gain emotional response from the audience, instead of moral reasoning. They had degraded the culture of dialogue in Greek. 
• 3) Both Socrates and Plato were against democracy. Socrates considered oral method as most effective method to teach philosophy. Socrates’ questioning revealed people’s ignorance & aroused people’s interest in fundamental philosophical questions. 
• 4) Socrates – philosophy remained totally centered around values. 
• Plato’s doctrine of cardinal virtues is based on his concept of virtue. 
• Socrates had said that virtue is knowledge. It means that insight into the nature of moral virtues is essential for becoming virtuous. 
• Plato rejected the idea that mere knowledge of virtue is not enough. Thus, Plato gave more importance to practice of virtues rather than preaching / knowing.
•  5) Plato hated arts and democracy. He gave  
• Four cardinal virtues. 1) Wisdom       2) Courage      3) Temperance     4) Justice  
• Morally good life can be achieved by following these four cardinal virtues. They are also called fundamental virtues and other virtues depend upon them and are therefore subordinate to them. 
• Four cardinal virtues have both individual and social significance. 
• Human beings are rational and social animals. According to him, morality of society is the same as it is for the individual. 

• Aristotle
• 1) Aristotle distinguishes moral virtues from the intellectual virtues. Aristotle gave emphasis to teleogy in philosophy and politics. (Teleogy is a method to study and direct the actions based on the final purpose or end result of any being or action).
• 2) We can develop virtue by practicing it, as a skill.  Knowledge, bravery, perseverance by themselves do not make morally good character or man. Their ethical significance depends on motives and values to which they are related.  Hence doctrine of golden mean is central in Aristotle’s concept of virtues. 
• 3) He considers justice as supreme virtue. 

• Justice : 
• 1) Distributive justice, Equitable distribution of wealth and honours. 
• 2) Remedial justice, Fair transactions among members of community.  

• * Virtue is a matter of striking a mean between two vices. 
• Excess         Mean        Deficiency  
• Rashness     Courage    Cowardice  
• Prodigality  Liberality  Meanness  
• Buffoonery Wittiness   Boorishness  
• Shyness       Modesty    Shamelessness  
• Boastfulness Truthfulness Understatement 

• Happiness :  
• Utilitarianism (J.S. Mills) : 
• 1) Happiness is state of mind. 
• 2) Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness. 
• Aristotle :  
• 1) Happiness is about living well or doing well.  
• 2) True happiness means living as rational being. 

• Consequentialism : 
• This moral theory holds that the consequences of a particular action form the basis for any valid moral judgement about that action. 
• Thus, from a consequentialist stand point, a morally right action is one that produces good outcome, or consequence.
• Moral worth of an action is determined by its outcome, and that the ends justify the means. 
• Utility  -  The good to be maximized. Happiness or pleasure. 

• Utilitarianism :  
• Consequences of the action produce favourable outcomes to everyone. 
• 1) Utilitarianism says that Supreme ideal of life is pleasure – not the individual pleasure but universal happiness.  Maximum happiness for maximum number for maximum time. 
• 2) It is form of Ethical Hedonism. Hedonism – Pleasure is the highest good. 

• Jeremy Benthem :  
• Gross or Quantitative utilitarianism. 
• 1) All pleasures are similar and they do not have qualitative differences. 
• 2) If quantity of pleasure is same  there is no qualitative difference between two pleasures. 
• 3) Each man desires for his own happiness and therefore general happiness is good for all. 
• 4) Moral standard –   
• Ethical egoism  – Greatest happiness of one individual.   
• Ethical altruism - Greatest happiness of all except himself / herself.   
• Utilitarianism  - Happiness of maximum number of people. 
• 5) Benthem argues that by nature man is selfish and egoistic, and he can be altruistic only when, by being altruistic he satisfies his own desires also.   (One classic criticism of utilitarianism is that it is ethics of swine.)  

• John Stuart Mill : 
• 1) Human beings have faculties much more elevated than swine, and require different types of gratification of higher faculties in order to be happy. 
• 2) Mill believes that intellectual pleasures are better than sensuous pleasures. He said that man seek satisfaction of higher capacities. 
• 3) It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied, better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. 

• Immanuel Kant 
• 1) Kant’s concept of moral duty is wider, it is an outcome of an individual’s rational thought. He formulated a moral theory grounded in idea of duty. It is a deontological theory. Kant was absolutist, he believed that people’s actions should be guided by moral laws, and these moral laws should be universal. 
• 2) According to Kant, our focus should be on what we ought to do. This ‘ought to’ is called dutifulness. What we wish to do is of no significance. So, Kant says people should follow such rational universal principles without thinking about their emotions or sentiments which usually misguide them.
• 3) From this reasoning, Kant derives universally valid moral rule of action known as the ‘categorical imperative.’  Kant’s aim was to establish a set of absolute moral rules, developed through application of reason. In other words moral rules should follow the principle of reciprocity. 
• 4) Categorical imperative thus refers to an absolute, unconditional requirement that asserts its authority in all circumstances, both required and justified as an end in itself. Categorical imperative says that the truly moral or ethical acts are not based on self-interest or greatest utility, but on a sense of duty. 
• 5) Kant also stated that always treat humanity, never simply as means, but always at the same time as an end. 
• 6) Kant traces the origin of moral law to man’s rationality or reason. He rejects education, civic constitution, inner perfection and god’s will as sources of moral law. 
• Kant’s emphasis on abstract laws leads him into extreme positions. Kant’s ethics rest on abstract laws or pure principle without regard to results which can follow from rigid adherence to principles. 
•  In law, a man is guilty when he violates the rights of others. In ethics, he is guilty if he only thinks of doing so. 
• All our knowledge begins with the senses, proceeds then to understanding and ends with reason. There is nothing higher than reason. 
• Morality is not the doctrine of how we make ourselves happy, but how we make ourselves worthy of happiness. 

• John Rawls : 
• 1) Book – Theory of justice.  It is variant of old social contract theory.
• 2) Two fundamental principles of justice necessary for just and morally acceptable society. 
• a) Each person with equal right with a similar system of liberty for all. 
• b) Social and economic inequalities arrangement.  
• 1) A benefit to least advantaged.  
• 2) Positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity. Principle (b) is similar to what is called positive discrimination. 

• 3) ‘Veil of ignorance’ – Rational choice within a veil of ignorance. 
• All players in social game would be placed in particular position. Rawls calls it the ‘original position.’ Rawls argues that given his assumptions people would prefer liberal societies with freedom and liberties based on equality of opportunities, but with allowance to problems of various disadvantaged groups. 

• Morality of self-interest :  Hobbes (Psychological egoism) 
• He maintains that all people act only in ways that improve their own self-interest. 
• 1) Every voluntary action is a desire for one’s own welfare. 
• 2) Psychological egoism asserts that all human action is motivated by selfish-desires’. It signifies that concern for another’s happiness is a means to one’s own happiness. Thus, it rules out the existence of noble and generous actions. 
• Pity – We pity others because we imagine ourselves in their place. We help others to ensure that others will help us in our bad times. 
• Charity – It is actually a demonstration of power according to Hobbes. We show ourselves to be more resourceful than others. 
• 3) Hobbes proposes a strong government with powerful law enforcement and effective system of punishment. The threat of being caught and punished should function as deterrence to crime. 

• Ayn Rand (Ethical egoism) 
• Ethical egoism suggests that we seek our own pleasure completely and as such it is reliable with the happiness goal. Therefore, ethical egoism is correct moral theory. 
• She criticizes that altruism corrodes  men’s capacity to know their life’s value and they totally become ignorant of reality. She infers that highest value is the organism’s self-preservation. 

• Nishkama Karma in Bhagwad Gita : 
• 1) It is the act done as a duty without expecting the fruit for self. 
• Sakam karma is involvement in work with an expectation of quick return. 
• Nishkama Karma is involvement for the sake of duty, without any expectations. Being bothered with what we do in the present instead of being worried about what its outcome will be in future. 
• 2) In Sakam Karma, we are constantly conscious of desired results and the benefits to the self. Our concentration thus moves to the end result which is not present but the future. This takes our attention & energies away, from the present i.e. work thus resulting in dissipation of energy. As emphasis is more on result if there is failure to achieve this then it leads to much more agony & dissatisfaction. 

• Karma Yoga :   
• Deals with importance of performing one’s duties in his life.  
• 1) Action is superior to inaction. Man gets bound by his action except if it is a sacrifice. The concept of sacrifice is more at the level of mind. One should grow beyond likes and dislikes while performing actions. One should keep performing actions, but with a selfless attitude.  

• Buddhist and Jainism ethics : 
• 1) The religious unrest in India in the 6th century B.C. The teaching of Upanishads , an alternative to the system of sacrifices, were highly philosophical in nature and therefore not easily understood by all. Therefore, what was needed in larger interests of people was a simple, short and intelligible way to salvation for all people. 
• 2) Such religious teachings should also be in a language known to them. This need was fulfilled by teachings of Buddha and Mahavira. Other than religious factor, social and economic factors also contributed to rise of these two religious. Economic improvement of Vaisyas and Kshatriyas had resented domination of priestly class. 

• Buddha : 
• 1) Buddha neither accepts god not rejects the existence of god. He laid great emphasis on law of karma. He argued that the condition of man in this life depends upon his own deeds. Even under the grevest provocation he did not show the least anger or hatred and instead conquered everyone by his love and compassion. 
• 2) His religion was identical with morality and it emphasized purity of thought, word and deed. He was a rationalist who tried to explain things in the light of reason and not on the basis of blind faith. 
• 3) Though he did not make a direct attack on caste system, he was against any social distinctions and threw open his order to all. Therefore, Buddhism was move a social than religious revolution. It taught the code of practical ethics and laid down the principle of social equality. 
• Four noble truths – 
• 1) The world is full of suffering. 
• 2) The cause of suffering is desire. 
• 3) If desires are got rid off, suffering can be removed. 
• 4) This can be done by following eightfold path. 
• Ashtanga Marg (Eightfold Path)-  
• Right view (Knowledge)           
• Right will (resolve)  
• Right speech  
• Right actions (Conduct)  
• Right livelihood  
• Right effort  
• Right mindfulness (memory)  
• Right concentration   
• Precepts (Rule of personal conduct / Principles) 
• 1) Not killing or causing harm to other living beings. 
• 2) No stealing or not taking that is not – given.  No exploiting or manipulating or taking advantage of people. 
• 3) Avoiding sexual misconduct. 
• 4) Abstaining from drink and drugs that cloud the mind.  Being in state of mindfulness or awareness. Mindfulness is central value to be established in one’s life to live harmoniously and ethically. 
• Concept of middle path – Avoid extreme forms of austerity and luxury.  

• Jainism
• The term Jainism is derived from the term “Jin” meaning a person who has overpowered his sensual vices and had obtained full control over his worldly desires. 
• Three principles of Jainism (Triratnas – three gems) 
• 1) Right faith – Belief in teachings and wisdom of thirthankara. 
• 2) Right knowledge – Acceptance of theory that there is no god and that the world has been existing without a creator and that all objects possess a soul. 
• 3) Right conduct –  Right conduct refers to Mahavira observance of five great vows – 
• Not to injure life                 
• Not to lie 
• Not to steal  
• Not to acquire property 
• Not to lead immoral life 
• Mahavira (Jainism) regards all objects, both animate and inanimate have souls and various degree of consciousness. They possess life and feel pain when they are injured. 
• Mahavira rejected the authority of Vedas and objected to vedic rituals.  He advocated a very holy and ethical code of life.  Even the practice of agriculture was considered sinful as it causes injury to earth, worms and animals.  Similarly the doctrine of asceticism and renunciation was also carried to extreme lengths. 
• Essential features of Jainism : 
• 1) Religious tolerance 
• 2) Ethical purity 
• 3) Harmony between self and one’s environment. 
• 4) Spiritual contentment 
• 5) Path to liberation consist of three jewels (ratna-traya) 

• Gandhian Ethics – 
• 1) The entire gamut of his philosophical thought is based on two moral cardinal values, namely Truth and Non-violence. 
• 2) Gandhian concepts such as, social equality, universal love, non-possession, purity of means, value-oriented education, satyagraha, classless society, removal of untouchability, global peace are having great relevance and significance in modern times. 
• 3) Gandhiji defined religion as a belief in the ordered and moral government of the universe. Gandhiji took every aspect of human life only from moral stand point. He even suspended noncooperation movement in 1921 as he believed that people are not morally qualified to conduct the movement. He declared that there is no religion higher than truth and righteousness. He further opined that if we lose the moral basis, we cease to be religious. 
• 4) His humanism believes in doing good to others as the way of highest moral life. He expressed his feelings clearly in Harijan. “For me, morals, ethics and religions are convertible terms. A moral life without reference to religion is like a house built upon sand. And religion, divorced from morality is like ‘sounding brass’ good only for making noise & breaking heads." 
• Gandhiji advocated some cardinal virtues of life which are essential to lead a moral and pious life. Indian ethics speaks of five virtues : 
• 1) Ahimsa (non violence) 
• 2) Asteya (Non stealing)  
• 3) Satya (Truthfulness) 
• 4) Aparigraha (non-possession) 
• 5) Brahmacharya (Celibacy)                        
• Gandhiji added   6) Abhaya (fearlessness)  

• 1) Ahimsa –  Gandhiji gave a new interpretation to the concept of non-violence.   According to him non-violence is law of human nature and race.   One should not harbour any evil thought. Real harmony in society lies in Ahimsa but not in Himsa.  Good derived out of violence is temporary and evil it does is permanent. 
• 2) Satya (Truthfulness)
•  1) His life was a series of experiments with truth. To him truth is not merely truthfulness in word, but in thought and deed. He identified absolute truth with god. He stated that lust, anger, greed, infatuation, pride and falsehood are to be avoided to practice truth. 
• 3) Asteya  (Non-stealing) 
• 1) Asteya means not taking away the property or anything belonging to anybody unless it is given by the person concerned. Jainism and Buddhism give more importance to Asteya. These religions exerted much influence on Gandhiji. He stated that people must reduce their wants. He described those people as thieves who irrationally acquires more than what they need to survive. 
• 4) Aparigraha (Non – Possession) 
• 1) For Gandhiji it means contentment. Rich have a store of things which they do not need, millions are starved to death for want of sustenance. He emphasizes that love and aparigraha go together.  
• 5) Brahmachrya (Celibacy) 
• 1) Gandhiji says that Brahmacharya means control in thought, word and action of all senses at all times in all places. An individual who practices Brahmacharya is free from all passion. 
• 6) Abhaya (Fearlessness)  
• 1) According to him, a seeker can not seek truth without fearlessness not seek truth without fearlessness moral bravery is highest heroism.   
• A seeker is ready to sacrifice, patiently and fearlessly everything including life for the sake of good of other people. 
• Universal religion : 
• The study of great religious scriptures helped Gandhiji for attaining religious and moral life.  

• Virtue Ethics 
• individualistic- a person become a better person though self-improvement.
• Epicureans - overcome fear of mind lead to happiness
• Aristotle - Happiness - eudemonia
• Virtue - golden mean btn two vices, courage btn - foolhardiness & cowardice
• Stoics

• Hobbes - social contact