Harappan Civilization (Bronze Age):

Harappa was the first site discovered in 1921, therefore the entire civilization named after Harappa. Alexander Cunningham, father of Indian archaeology.

Discovery time - Cunningham used Chinese pilgrim accounts to locate and excavate sites. Daya Ram Sahni and Rakhal Das Banerji - found seals at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.
John Marshall - announced the discovery of Indus Valley to the world in 1924. Mound - build up of occupational debris. Study of sterile layers is called stratigraphy.
Wheeler - DG ASI 1944 - followed the stratigraphy of the mound rather than uniform digging up of an area, for military precision to practice of archaeology.
Piecing together - classifying finds - material, function. Reconstruction of history made on assumption that later tradition provide parallels with earlier ones. Issue of gender work haven't been investigated till now.

Indus Valley Civilization - sites

Kot Diji (Sind), Kalibangan (RJ), Ropar (PB), Banawali (HR), Lothal Surkotada Dholavira (GJ). ~100 hectares in size. Mohenjodaro ~200 hectares.
4 stages - pre-Harappan (Mehrgarh - nomadic to agricultural), early-Harappan (large villages in plains -> growth of towns), mature-Harappan (great cities with elaborate town planning) and late Harappan (sites like Lothal - trade w Mesopotamia). ~2300 BC to 1750 BC ~650 years of civilization.
Extent:

Important Cities:

Pakistan
only site which yields the evidence of coffin burial.
copper bullock cart is another notable finding, 6 granaries, Many gems and jewellery, Male torso

Pakistan
Great Bath (no stone use), Great Granaries, elaborate store houses, uniform buildings and weights, hidden drains, cotton clothes. Dancing girl, seal of Pashupati, bearded priest

Haryana
This city doesn’t had drainage system, terrakota replica of plough, circular radiant pattern

Gujarat
Fire altar, Twin Burial, Semi precious stones available. Coastal town, direct sea trade links with Mesopotamia. Had ship building industry.

Cities were divided into two or more parts. West was smaller but higher and had citadel. Part to east was larger but lower.
Bricks were laid in interlocking pattern that made walls strong. Sun dried bricks were of standard ratio. Chanhudara: City without Citadel, Dholavira: City was divided into three parts.
Cities were built on grid pattern; Houses were 1 or 2 storeys high. Separate bathing area. Covered drains. Underground drainage system. There were strategic air duct.

Society was divided on the basis of wealth, class mobility is allowed, caste mobility not allowed. IVC was highly matured society.
Copper and bronze to make tools, weapons, vessels. Gold and silver to make ornaments and vessels. Faience was an artificial material used to make beads, bangles, earrings. Imported items - copper, tin, gold, silver, precious stones.
Vessels made of stone, metal and terracotta.
Burials - dead were laid in pits. Graves contain pottery and ornaments. Valuable materials concentrated in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa.

a. Authority - no identifiable power of authority. Parallel of priest king of Mesopotamia found in Indus. Single state theory - similarity in artifacts, planned settlements, standardized ratio of brick size and settlements near sources of raw materials. Unlikely entire communities could have collectively made and implemented such complex decisions. May be merchant were rulers difficult to ascertain.

a. Harappans grew wheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice, sesame, linseed and mustard. Ploughs made of wood was used to dig earth. Some form of irrigation may have been used. Likely that water from wells used for irrigation. Water reservoir in Dholavira used to store water for agriculture. Reared - cattle, sheep, goat and buffalo. No clue if Harappan hunted wild animals or traded with hunting communities.
b. Chanhudaro - exclusively devoted to craft production with variety of materials - precious stones, metals. Nageshwar and Balakot - bangles, ladles and inlay.

a. Textile industry, Brick making industry, Metallurgical industry, ship building industry at lothal, Jewellery industry at Chanhudaro, Lothal and Dholavira.
b. Procuring materials - from alluvial plains, riverine routes, coastal routes. Shortughai (lapis lazuli, high value blue stone) is in Afghanistan. Expeditions to other communities. Omani (Magan) copper and Harappan artifacts have common origins. The earliest traces of cotton known anywhere in the world have been found in the Valley. Harappan seals were found in Mesopotamia and vice versa. Mesopotamia called Harappa region of Meluhha. Barter system of trade was used.

a. Mother goddess, Pashupati seal (According to John Marshall, he was proto shiva); Pashupati seal surrounded by bull, tiger, elephant, rhino and two deer. Evidence on Lingo yoni also found. Clear evidence of animal sacrifice along with rituals.

a. Harappans were aware of binary and decimal system and used it for measurement. Weights - made of stone called chert, cubical in shape.

a. Harappan seal - made of stone called steatite, 2x2 seal, pictographic along with animal motifs (unicorn, bull, rhino, tiger, elephant, bison, buffalo) and signs, five signs on an average - script indecipherable, Harappan seal had writing (right to left). Seals were used to facilitate long distance trade and communication. Also used as amulet, educational tool, + motifs for those who couldn't read. Writing was found on variety of items => were most people literate?
b. Terrakota Figure: Clay based, mother goddess, toys and carts with wheels
c. Bronze Sculpture: (Cire perdue), practiced on a wide scale, prominent in places like kalibangan, daimabad and Harappa, example: bronze dancing girl, Mohenjodaro.
d. Pottery: Red and black pottery ware, painted pottery but more common is plain pottery. Red background and black to draw designs. Uses: Storage of water, foodgrains, decoration, perforated potteries for straining liquor.
e. Ornaments: Vareity of materials, precious gemstones, bone and even baked clay, Necklaces, armlets and finger rings, dead bodies buried with ornaments, lipstick, facepaint, eyeliner.

5. Decline - after 1900 BCE disappearance of distinctive artifacts of civilization, ritual way of life in Late Harappa cultures. Various theories on decline - fertility of soil declined, floods/earthquake - Aryan invasion.

Shruti