Mughals:

• 1. Mughals were descendants of 2 lineages - Genghis Khan (mother's side, ruler of Central Asia) & Timur (father's side, ruler of Iran Iraq Turkey). 1st phase 6 sultans: Greater Mughals. 2nd phase after Aurangzeb 8 sultans later Mughals.
• 2. Babur - 1526-1530. Timur from father's side and Genghis Khan from mother's side. Was invited in India by Rana Sangrama Singh and Daulat Khan Lodi. Defeated Ibrahim Lodi at 1st Battle of Panipat in 1526 establishing Mughal empire in Northern India. 1528 defeated Rajputs at Chanderi. He wrote Tuzuki Babari: Autobiography of Babur. Also called Baburnama. Defeated Rana Sangrama in Battle of Khanva (1527). Medini Roy defeated in Battle of Chanderi (1528). Battle of Ghagra defeated Nusrat Shah (1529). Tomb of Babur in Kabul. 
• 3. Humayun - 1530-1540 & 1555-56 - divided inheritance as per will of father. Sher Khan Suri ruled for 15 years after defeating Humayun at Chausa & Kanauj. Humayun re-captures Delhi with the help of Safavid Shah of Iran and defeats Sikandar sur (Son of Sher shah sur). Source Humayun Nama written by his sister Gul Badan Begum. King of Amarkot gave shelter to Humayun. Akbar was born in Amarkot in 1542. 
• 4. Sher Shah (1540-45) - waged wars against Rajputs and extended his empire. Organized good administration system. Munsif: Revenue Administration, Shiqadar: Police, Khajandar: treasury.Village Head: patvari,  Wizarat, Ariz, Rasalat, Insha - same as Delhi Sultanate. Land revenue was carefully done. 1/3 revenue of produce. Silver coins called dam. Constructed GT Road & Purana Qila, mausoleum at Sasaram. Tolerant ruler. Padmavat (Malik Jayasi) was written during his reign.
• 5. Akbar 1556-1605 - regent king under Bairam Khan until 1570. Consolidated power by launching campaigns against neighboring kingdoms such as Malwa, Gondwana, Sisodiya etc. 1570-1585 - Gujarat, Bihar, Bengal, Odisha captured. 1585-1605 - Kabul, Kandahar + Deccan. Maintained great relations with Rajputs through alliances by marriages. Rajputs got power, prestige and stability and Akbar got brave warriors. Ranas of Mewar were the only exception. Broad religious tolerance, abolished pilgrim tax and jiziya. Abul Fazl wrote Akbar Nama, 3 volume history of Akbar's reign. Ain-i-Akbari is 3rd volume of it and deals with his administration, army, household et al and provides rich details about traditions and culture of people living in India.
• 6. Religion: Started off his as a pious muslim, became skeptical one. Disliked interference of ulemas. Promulgated new monotheistic religion called din-i-ilahi or divine faith. It contained good points of all religions. Its basis was rational, upheld no dogma. It was aimed at bridging the gulf that separated different religions. However, his new faith proved to be a failure. It fizzled out after his death. Even during his life time, it had only fifteen followers including Birbal. Akbar did not compel anyone to his new faith. Sulh-i-kul (universal peace) - This idea of tolerance did not discriminate between people of different religions in his realm, focused on a system of ethics – honesty, justice, peace – that was universally applicable. Was adopted by Akbar not merely for religious purposes, but as a part of general imperial administrative policy. Akbar held discussions with priests of different religions in ibadat khana. Factors responsible for religious tolerance - early contacts with the sufi saints, the teachings of his tutor Abdul Latif, his marriage with Rajput women, his association with intellectual giants like Shaikh Mubarak and his two illustrious sons – Abul Faizi and Abul Fazl – and his ambition to establish an empire in Hindustan.
• 7. Administration – was based on Tabla-e-Adit. Akbar introduced zabti/bandobast system. Todar Mal improved upon it - Dahsala system- After careful survey tax was fixed on each crop in cash based on 10 year data.  Land divided into 4 categories: polaj (cultivated every year), parauti (2 years), chachar (2-3 years), banjar (5+ years). Payment of revenue made in cash. Each province was divided into revenue circle with its own schedule of revenue rates for individual crops. Not possible in Gujarat and Bengal but where Mughals had direct control. Mansabdari system - Mansabdars refers to a person who holds mansab meaning a rank. It was a grading system used by Mughals to fix rank, salary and military responsibilities (maintain cavalrymen); which was determined by a numerical value called zat. Mansabdars received their salaries as revenue assignments called jagir. 
• 8. Akbar's policies - Empire was divided into provinces called subas, governed by subadar. Financial officer called diwan. Peace and order controlled by officials such as the military paymaster (bakhshi), the minister in charge of religious and charitable patronage (sadr), military commanders (faujdars) and the town police commander (kotwal). Liberal Reforms: Forcible conversion were banned, pilgrimage taxes were abolished, Zijiya tax was abolished, Many temples constructed, cow slaughter banned. Had number of Rajput wives.
• 9. Jahangir 1605 – 1627 Autobiography Tuzuk-i-Jahangir. Hospitals were built, release of political prisoners, animal killing was banned. Zanzir –e- Adil Bell of Justice was provided. Arrival of two britisher during his time: Captain Hawkins (1608-11) and Sir Thomas roe (1615-19) Military campaigns continue. Shah Jahan takes over after his death. Noor Jahan his wife, her title padusha begum. Coins were minted on his name. Her father Itmad-ud-Daula. Tomb built by Noor Jahan.
• 10. Shah Jahan 1627 - 1658 Abdul Hamid Lahiri wrote a book Padushanama and Inayat Khan author of Shah Jahan nama. His conquest in Ahmednagar in 1633. Auranzeb was governor of Deccan. (Dara Shikoh his elder son intellectual and translated Bhagvath Gita into Persian. Title Sir-i-Akbari. Hagiographer wrote accounts of Muslim saints, “Safinat-ul-Auliya” and also wrote Majma ul Bahrain” Dara Shikoh was killed by hs brother. Taj Mahal and Shahjahanabad. 
• 11. Aurangzeb 1658 - 1707 – Kafi Khan Historian in his court wrote Kitab-ul-Lulab. Md. Kazini wrote Alamgirnama, Eshwar Das Futuhathi Alamgir, Bheem Sen Nuskha-i-Dilkusha, Md. Saqi Mustaid Khan-Maasir-i-Alamgir. killed his 2 brothers over succession conflict and jailed Shah Jahan for life in Agra. Assumed title Alamgir. Faced serious difficulties in the latter part of his reign. The Jats and Satnamis and also the Sikhs revolted against him. These revolts were induced by his harsh religious policy. Rise of Marathas under Shivaji. Annexation of Golconda & Bijapur to counter threat of Shivaji put him in direct confrontation with him. It depleted Mughal resources and led to decline. He came to south in 1681 and died in 1707. Annexed 1687 Golkonda and 1686 Bijapur. Religious Policy: Was a staunch and orthodox Muslim, wanted to convert India into an Islamic state, not as pluralistic as his predecessors. Stopped minting Kalima on Coins. Reimposed jiziya. Counter view- Built more temples than destroyed (Vishvanath Temple Kashi and Keshavaraj Temple Madhurai), employed Hindus in bureaucracy. Religious policy responsible in turning Rajputs, Marathas, Sikhs, even Deccan shias as enemies of the empire. Execution of Sikh gurus led to the community become a warring one. 
• 12. Mughals followed coparcenary inheritance (joint heirship) instead of primogeniture - which ultimately led to battle of succession among princes. The careful balance between defeating but not humiliating their opponents enabled the Mughals to extend their influence over many kings and chieftains. 
• 13. Downfall of Mughals - After death of Aurangzeb, Mughal court became the scene of factions among the nobles. The weakness of the empire was exposed when Nadir Shah imprisoned the Mughal Emperor and looted Delhi in 1739. The causes for the downfall of the Mughal Empire were varied - religious and Deccan policies of Aurangazeb, weak successors and demoralization of the Mughal army, financial difficulties due to continuous wars, neglect of the sea power by the Mughals when the Europeans began to settle in India. Further, the invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali weakened the Mughal state.
• 14. In 1717, Farrukhsiyar issued a farman giving the British East India Company the right to reside and trade in the Mughal kingdom. They were allowed to trade freely, except for a yearly payment of 3,000 rupees. 
• 15. Architecture – Babar: 4 mosques: Agra, Panipat, Sambhal Near Delhi, Ayodhya. Humayun: Humayun Tomb by wife Hamida Banu Begum, Features: Octagonal, massive platform, middle of a garden, double dome, red sand stone, replica of Timur’s tomb Akbar: Agra fort (red sandstone), Lahore Fort and Allahabad fort. Fatehpur Sikri had buildings in Gujarati and Bengali style, contains Jama Masjid & Buland Darwaza to it, Darga of Sheikh Salim Chisti, Panch Mahal. Anuptalav water tank, only water source in city. Palaces: Jodabai Palace, Maraina Palace, Sultana Palace, Ibadat Khana, Diwan-i-aam and Diwan-i-Khas. Tomb: Built by himself at shikandara outside Agra. Jahangir: Noor Jahan Built two tombs: Jahangir at Shahdara and Her father at Agra. Itmad Ud Daula’s tomb: First tomb in white marble, Pietradura used. Shah Jahan: In Agra fort: Diwan-i-aam, Diwan-i-Khas, Shish mahal, Khas Mahal, jasmin Palace, Moti Masjid, Taj Mahal (Octagonal, Double dome, middle of garden, 4 minarest, pure white marble, grid platform. In Delhi Red Fort (red sandstone), Diwan-i-am, Diwan-i-Khas, Peacock Throne, Jama Masjid Opposite to Red Fort. Aurangzeb: Bibi kamaqbara, poor imitation of Taj Mahal, Badshahi Mosque: Lahore; Moti Masjid: Lahore Mughals transition -> red sandstone (Agra Fort) -> red sandstone + marble dome (Humayun's tomb) -> white marble + pietra dura. Moti Masjid (white marble).
• 16. Painting – Illustrated paintings, stories through paintings, 1 dozen illustrated painting in Akbar’s period, Hamza nama, Also 3D painting and technique of foresightind developed in Akbar’s period. Humayun got Mir Sayyid Ali & Abdal Samad from Persia, who got famous under Akbar. Baswan, Miskina, Daswant - court artists under Akbar. Hamzanama or Dastan-e-Amir Hamza (consists of 1200 miniature paintings, commissioned under Akbar). Jahangir: Greatest patron of painting: Ustad Mansur, Greatest Painter of Mughal Period, Title Shirin Qalam, called Raphel of east, expert in drawing birds and animals. Other Painter: Govardhan, Bishan Das and Manohar. Shah Jahan’s Court: Kalyan Das, Anut Chir, Md. Nadir Samarkhandi. Paintings of Dara Shiko. 
• 17. Literature - Ain-i-akbari & Akbar Nama by Abul Faizi. Dara Shikoh translated Gita & Upanishad into Persian language. Tulsidas was attached to Akbar's court. During Akbar: Mahabharat (Razm Nama), Ramayan (Abdul Khadir Badauni), Atharavaveda (Ibrahim Srihindi), Bhagavata purana (Todarmal), Rajatarangini (Shah badi), Lilavati (Abul Faizi). Sanskrit Literature: PadmaShankara wrote Akbarshahi Shringar Darpanam, Jaganath Pandit wrote: RasaGangadhaar and GangaLahirir 
• 18. Music: Tansen from Gwalior, Ragas: Miyanki Todi, Rageshri, Malhar, Sarang, Instruments: Rudhra Veena, Books: Sangitasara and Rajamala. Baiju Bawra: Bahadur Melodies. Aurangzeb himself was veena player.
• 19. Foreign Visitors: Ralph Pitct: 1st britisher in India during Akbar’s period, He Talks about poverty in Varanasi and Agra, Jean Baptiste Travenier: French Jeweller visited India 6 times, During Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb time, He came to Golconda because there was Diamond industry. Meer Md. Syed: owner of Kohinoor Diamond, he presented it to Mughals. Francois Bernier: A French Doctor, worked in army of Shah Jahan for some time, poverty of common man, extreme luxury of high class people, no middle class, He described Mughals as King of Beggars. Peter Mundy: A britisher During Shah jahan’s period, Famine in Gujarat and Deccan. People dropped ploughs and took weapons to war against king, Nicolo Manucci: An Italian Doctor in Shah Jahan’s period, wrote a book called Storio Dor Mogor (Story of Mughals)
• 20. Peasantry by Aurangzeb's reign suffered because mansabdars increased while jagirs were in short supply. Revenue from jagirs was extracted as much as possible.
• 21. Mughal emperors and their mansabdars spent a great deal of their income on salaries and goods. This expenditure benefited the artisans and peasantry who supplied them with goods and produce. But the scale of revenue collection left very little for investment in the hands of the primary producers – the peasant and the artisan. 
• 22. Poorest amongst them lived from hand to mouth and they could hardly consider investing in additional resources – tools and supplies – to increase productivity. The wealthier peasantry and artisanal groups, the merchants and bankers profited in this economic world
• 23. Ottoman Turkey - Sultan Suleiman. He was the great emperor of Ottoman empire, known as al-Qanuni (law giver) because of large number of qanuns passed during his reign. 
• 24. Wealth and prosperity of the aristocratic class, poverty and sufferings of ordinary class. Most were foreigners such as Turks and Afghans who assimilated with Indian society and culture. Tobacco and maize in 17th century. Potato and red chilies came in 18th century. No new agricultural technique.
• 25. The trading community did not belong to one caste or religion. The Gujarati merchants included the Hindus, Jains and Muslims. In Rajasthan, Oswals, Maheshwaris and Agarwals came to be called the Marwaris. Multanis, Khatris and Afghanis conducted trade with central Asia. In south India, the Chettis on the Coramandal coast and the Muslim merchants of Malabar were the most important trading communities. Balance of trade was maintained with import of gold and silver.