Muslim Invasion and Delhi Sultanate:

15.1 Muslim Invasion:

1. Mahmud of Ghazni - raided and plundered India 17 times (997-1030 AD). Considered hero of Islam by medieval historians. His conquest of Punjab and Multan paved the way for the Turks and Afghans for further conquests and make deeper incursions into the Gangetic valley. In first battle he defeated Jaipala at battle of Peshawar. Defeated his son Rajpala in battle of Waihind. He drained the resources of India by his repeated raids and deprived India of her manpower. The exhaustion of India’s economic resources and man power had its adverse effect on the political future of India. Firdausi - court poet who wrote Shah Nama. Al-baruni wrote Kitab-i-hind.  Also translated Brihat Samhita into Arabic. His book is ethnocentric, Studying other religions based on his own religion.

2. Muhammad Ghori - vassal of Ghaznavids who became independent after his death and decline of that dynasty. Mahmud wanted to conquer India and extend his empire here. First Battle of Tarain 1191 - Ghori v confederacy of Hindu states under command of Prithviraj Chauhan; Ghori defeated. But returns with vengeance for the second battle 1192 and claims a decisive victory; PC executed. First Muslim kingdom in India established at Ajmer; Qutbddin Aybak left behind to consolidate. 1194 battle of Chandwar Jayachandra of kanauj was defeated. He does so by taking Delhi and Meerut. Slave dynasty rule begins. 

3. Causes of failure of Hindu kingdoms - were divided by factions. Secondly, many Hindu states were declining in power. Their military methods were out of date and far inferior to those of Muslims. Indians continued to rely on elephants while the Muslims possessed quick-moving cavalry. The Muslims soldiers had better organization and able leaders. Their religious zeal and their greed for the greater wealth of India provided stimulus to them. Among the Hindus, the duty of fighting was confined to a particular class, the Kshatriyas. Always on the defensive, which was always a weak position. 

15.2 Delhi Sultanate:

1. Delhi became an important commercial center under Tomaras and Chahamanas. Coins minted called delhiwal.

2.

Rajput	Early 12th century - 1206
Mamluk Dynasty	1206-1290	Turks
Khilji Dynasty	1290-1320	Turks
Tughlaq Dynasty	1320-1414	Turko-Indian
Sayyid Dynasty	1414-1451	Turks
Lodi Dynasty	1451-1526	Pashtuns/Afghans

3. Mamluk (1206-1290) Quranic term for slaves. Within this 3 dynasties - Aybak, Iltutmish, Ilbari. Qutbddin Aybak 1206-1210 - ruled only 4 years. Severed ties with Ghori empire and established Slave dynasty and Delhi Sultanate with capital at Lahore. Was called Lakh Baksh. Historian in his court called Hasan Nizami wrote Taaj ul Maathir.

4. Iltutmish - 1211-1236 was son-in-law of Aybak. Defeated his son and established empire at Delhi. Defended against Ghengis Khan (basically didn't join the kingdoms which were on the offense). Got mansur (letter of recognition) from Caliphate. Completed Qutb Minar. Introduced silver tanka which is basis of modern rupee.  Introduced Iqta system, Iqta: land given in lieu of cash payments, The officer is called iqtedar. Turkan I Chihalgani: Association of 40 nobles or chalisa. Protected Delhi from Invasion of Chengiz Khan.

5. Raziyya into power (only female ruler), short reign which was marred by conspiracy from her resentful Turk nobility. Minaj I Siraj wrote Tabaqat-i-Nasiri.

6. Ghiyasuddin Balban 1266-1290 - rose to power after Nasiruddin Mahmud (son-in-law, regent to him) died in 1266. Asserted himself over his nobles, appointed spies to monitor their activities. Restored law and order -> making roads safer for travels. One of the main architects of Delhi Sultanate. Policy of consolidation.Steps for consolidation: He took a title “Zil I Illahi” (Shadow of God), Introduecd Sajdah, Paibosa(kissing feet of king) and Novruz. Destruction of Chihalgani, and Started Diwan-i-Arz (military department). Driham a New gold coin was introduced. Khilji captures thrones after his death in 1287.

7. Khilji dynasty (1290-1320) - zenith of Muslim imperialism in India. Jalaluddin Khilji was old when he came to power, usurped by son-in-law Alauddin. 

8. Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316): Tried to win over hostile nobles, but maintained supremacy over them by controlling them - confiscated property, efficient spy system and ban of all liquor and drugs. Secularization of administration (1) Reforms - large permanent standing army paid in cash, system of dagh (branding of horses), huliya (descriptive list of soldiers). (2) Market reforms - basically price regulation to fix commodity prices & govt stock holding. 4 markets - grains, cloth & groceries et al, horses, slaves and cattle, misc items - controlled by shahna-i-mandi. Naib-i-riyasat to register every merchant. Munhiyans - agents to report to Sultan. Violations were heavily punished. In Delhi yes, rest can't say. (3) First Sultan of Delhi who ordered for the measurement of land. Even the big landlords could not escape from paying land tax. Started Diwan-i-mustakraj Revenue department. Land revenue was collected in cash in order to enable the Sultan to pay the soldiers in cash. Land revenue reforms provided a basis for the future reforms of Sher Shah and Akbar. (4) Successfully defended India against Mongol invasions. Many North Indian dynasties ended because of his military campaigns and South Indian ones became tributaries (Yadavs (1308), Kakatiyas (1309), Hoysalas (1310), Pandyas (1311)) through conquests by Malik Kafur. After these took title Sikandar-i-Sehni. (5) Built Siri, patronized - Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan. 

9. Mubarakh Khilji: Son of Allaudin, He was assassinated by Khusru Khan, Only king in India who took title Khalifa.

10. Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1414) - Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq - killed Khusru Khan and became Sultan. Tughlaqabad as capital.

11. Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1324-51) His enterprises and novel experiments ended in miserable failures because they were all far ahead of their time. He was very tolerant in religious matters. He maintained diplomatic relations with far off countries like Egypt, China and Iran. Contemporary writers like Isami, Barani (Tarikh E Ferozshahi) and Ibn Battutah(Kitab-ul-Rihla) were unable to give a correct picture about his personality. But, Muhammad bin Tughlaq was the only Delhi Sultan who had received a comprehensive literary, religious and philosophical education. Was infamous for (1) transfer of capital to Daulatabad/Devagiri leading to immense unpopularity (2) issuing of copper coins when silver was short leading to forgery- Token Currency (3) taxation in Ganga-Yamuna doab Dhari (house tax) and Chari (cattle tax) (4) agricultural reforms leading to establishing dept of agriculture diwan-i-kohi and takkavi (loan scheme). First Sultan who made famine law.

12. Firoz Tughlaq (1351-88) -  stabilized the empire. Tried to reassert himself in North India. Intolerant. 

Administration - followed advise of ulemas, iqta was revived and made hereditary, nobles pleased. Jiziya was imposed on all non-Muslims. First one to impose irrigation tax (Shurb) but did build canals and wells. Kharaj Land revenue was 1/10th. Zakat: 2.5% from rich muslims. Developed factories called karkhanas and built Firoz Shah Kotla. Diwan-i-khairat (for poor) and Diwan-i-Bandagami (for slaves). Introduced Drip irrigation in India.Wrote his autobiography: Futuhat-i-Firozshahi. Shams-us-sharifa wrote a book called “Tarikh-e-Firozshah”. Built Firozabad, Jaunpur and Hissar. Destroyed Jaganath Temple. After death - power struggle, rebellion of slaves, Timur attacks in 1398 and ransacks Delhi.

13. Nasiuddin Tuglaq: Timur invades, 

14. Sayyid dynasty (1414-51) - Timur appoints Khizr Khan governor of Multan who captures Delhi and establishes his dynasty. Alam Shah abdicates his throne to Buhlul Khan Lodi and retires. 

15. Lodi dynasty (1451-5126) - first Afghans. Succeeded by Sikander and Ibrahim. 

Sikander - Consolidated empire from Punjab to Bihar. Despite certain laudable qualities, he was a bigot. He destroyed many Hindu temples and imposed many restrictions on the Hindus. Yet, he was one of the great Lodi sultans who made the sultanate strong and powerful. Lodi Garden has his tomb.

Ibrahim - Greatly displeased by his arrogance, Daulat Khan Lodi (Punjab governor) invited Babur to invade India. Babur marched against Delhi and defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of Panipat (1526). 

16. AdminsitrationLed to powerful and efficient administrative system - made a powerful impact on provincial kingdoms and Mughal empire. Sultans had no laws of succession and hence all sons had equal claim on thrones - which explains why they fought so much.

17. Central govt - Naib (most powerful, exercised all powers) 

Wazir	Diwani Wizarat	Finance
Azir-e-mumalik	Diwani Ariz	Defense	Military dept first by Balban
Sadr	Diwani Rasalat	Religious/Foreign Affairs
Qazi	Sharia	Judicial
-	Diwani Insha	Correspondence

18. Local admin - provinces were called iqtas. Governors were called muqtis or walis. Provinces divided into shiqs (districts) under shiqdar & pargana (block of villages) under amil. Village headman -> muqaddam/chaudhary. Village accountant -> patwari.

19. Economy - 3 land categories -> (a) iqtas - assigned to officials (no salaries) (b) khalisa - direct control of Sultan c) inam - religious leaders/institutions. Peasants paid 1/3 or 1/2 as revenue. Cities grew under Delhi Sultanate. Overseas trade was under the control of Multanis and Afghan Muslims. Inland trade was dominated by the Gujarat Marwari merchants and Muslim Bohra merchants. Cotton textile and silk industry flourished. Sericulture was introduced on a large scale. Extensive use of paper from 14th and 15th centuries. Other crafts like leather-making, metal-crafts and carpet-weaving flourished.  

20. Social - traditional caste system continues, subservient position of women and sati prevalent, seclusion and purdah (foreign influence). Hindus considered zimmis (protected people) hence forced to pay jiziya. Society was divided bw different ethnic groups. Hindus were being governed by their own personal laws and cases dispensed by panchayats. Criminal laws as per Sultan

21. Art & architecture - Turks introduced arches, domes, minarets and decorations using the Arabic script. Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki - Qutb Minar was named after him (sufi saint who was spiritual successor of Moinuddin Chisti). The buildings of the Tughlaq period were constructed by combining arch and dome. They also used the cheaper and easily available grey color stones.  Mosques Quwwet-ul-Islam in Delhi and Arhai Din Ka Jhopra in Ajmer. First Truly Built mosque was Jamayat Khana by Allauddin Khilji. Alai minar and Alai Darwaza by Khilji. Palaces Firoz shah Kotla and Hauz Khas. Tombs: Sikandar Lodi Tomb, (raised platform, octagonal, charbagh). 

22. Music - instruments such as sarangi and rabab were introduced. Persio Arabic combined with Indian music to give hinduatani sangeet. Amir Khusrau introduced ragas such as ghora and sanam, Qawwali by blending Hindu & Iranian system, and sitar. Raja Man Singh of Gwalior - Man Kautuhal. Tabala and Sitar were introduced by Amir Khusru.

23. Literature - Arabic and Persian encouraged. Barani’s Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi contains the history of Tughlaq dynasty. Minhaj-us-Siraj wrote Tabaqat-i-Nasari, a general history of Muslim dynasties up to 1260. Amir Khusrau was a famous poet during this period who wrote Sabaq-i-hind, Khazain-ul-futuh, Tughlaq Nama. Also wrote romantic books Ashiqua, Shirin Khusru, Laila Majnu. Persian & Sanskrit were languages of Delhi Sultanate. Rajatrangini by Kalhana.

24. Tarikh/tawarikh - are histories written in Persian the language of administration of Delhi Sultans. The authors of these had lived in cities and not villages, expected reward from the rulers, advised to preserve ideal social order based on birth right and gender distinctions. 

25. Expansion of Delhi Sultanate - 1st expansion in internal frontiers - hinterland around garrison towns was controlled by clearing forests and encouraging agriculture. 2nd expansion - external frontiers - military expedition into Southern India. Notable - Alauddin Khilji & Muhammad Tughlaq. Quwwat al-Islam (Qutab complex) - built in 12th century by Qutbuddin Aybak and Iltutmish. Qibla is direction of Kabba in Mecca.

26. Mongols - attacked under Genghis Khan. Mongol attacks on the Delhi Sultanate increased during the reign of Alauddin Khalji and in the early years of Muhammad Tughluq’s rule. Forced both to mobilize a large standing army in Delhi which posed a huge administrative challenge.