19. Literary Sources: (700 to 1750 AD)
- 1. Al-Idrisi & Guillaume Delisle - were cartographers. Minhaj-i-siraj - used the term India to mean dominions of Delhi Sultanate, not including south India. Hindustan was used by Babur to describe geography, flora and fauna of the subcontinent. Paper was more easily available from 14th century onwards. Miniature paintings were used to illustrate the text of paintings. Taliq, nastaliq and shikaste - are Persian and Arabic writing styles. By 700 AD, many regions already possessed distinct geographical dimensions and their own language and cultural characteristics.
- 2. Brahmins position was consolidated by new rulers searching for prestige. Idea of bhakti – of a loving, personal deity that devotees could reach without the aid of priests or elaborate rituals. Like Hinduism, Islam was interpreted in a variety of ways - Shias (Prophet's son-in-law Ali is the leader) and Sunnis (accepted leadership of father-in-law Bakr). Sunnis are the largest religious domination, followed by Catholics. Sunni schools, prominent 4- Hanafi (reason), Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali.
- 1. Women travelers did exist but no account left. Al-biruni - Uzbekistan - 11th century. Ibn Battuta - Morocco - 14th century. Bernier - France - 17th century. Others who visited India - Abdur Razzaq Samarqandi, Mahmud Wali Balkhi, Shaikh Ali Hazin, Marco Polo.
- 2. Al-biruni and Kitab ul Hind (founder of Indology). Was a hostage of Mahmud Ghazni and traveled widely in Punjab and Northern India. Kitab-ul-hind is written in Arabic - covers variety of subjects. He depended mostly on Vedas, Puranas, Gita, Patanjali and Manusmriti for his understanding of Indian society. Thought that caste system was contrary to laws of nature. Antyaja - born outside the system / untouchables - were inexpensive labor to peasants.
- 3. Ibn Battuta wrote Rihla in Arabic - rich and interesting details about social and cultural life of 14th century. Was a qazi for Muhammad bin Tughlaq at Delhi. Marco Polo was his contemporary. Described coconut and paan to the foreign audience (NCERT sigh). He noted the network of trade and commerce links subcontinent had with Indian products in great demand. Efficient system of postal communication - uluq (run by royal horses) & dawa (foot post, meaning 1/3 of a mile).
- 4. Francois Bernier - compared Mughal empire with contemporary Europe, canvassing Europe as the superior civilization. Found crown ownership of property as harmful to both state and people. Asserted that there is no middle class in India. Was a champion of private property. No Mughal document suggests that state was sole owner of land. Bernier's description influenced Western theorists - idea of oriental despotism developed by Montesquieu. In 17th century around 15% of Indian population lived in towns (higher than Western Europe). Merchants were organized into caste-cum-occupational bodies called mahajans, and chief sheth.
- 5. Women, slaves & satis - slaves were common, sometimes used as a spy, generally for domestic labor.
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