Vijayanagara (14th-16 century)

 Karnataka Samrajyamu 

• People remembered the city as Hampi (named after Pampadevi). Oral traditions, archaeological finds, monuments & inscriptions helped reconstruct the empire. Discovery of Hampi - brought about by Colin Mackenzie (1st Surveyor General of India 1815).
• 2. Harihara & Bukka founded Vijayanagara Empire is 1336, had different religions & different languages within. Rulers built on rich traditions of Cholas & Hoysalas. Warfare was dependent on effective cavalry, import of horses was crucial. Local merchants kudirai chettis participated in this as well as Arab traders. Trade was status symbol of these cities - spices, textiles & precious stones. Revenue from trade contributed to prosperity of state. 
• 3. Had 5 dynasties - Sangama, Saluvas, Tuluva, Aravidu - that order. 
• 4. Krishnadeva Raya's rule was that of expansion and consolidation. Acquired - Raichur doab, Odisha subdued, Sultan of Bijapur defeated. Addition of gopuram to many important temples was the highlight of his rule. New township - Nagalapuram after his mother.  Wrote Amuktamalyada, work on statecraft in Telugu. 
• 5. Successors were troubled by nayakas (military chiefs). Military ambitions of rulers of Vijayanagara led to alliance of Sultans against them. Rama Raya led army into battle at Rakshasi-Tangadi (Talikota) and got routed. Hampi was sacked and eventually deserted. Relations bw Sultans and Rayas were not always hostile, Rama Raya is blamed for adventurism which led to Sultans combining against him. //Yavana is used for Greek and others who entered subcontinent through north west. 
• 6. Nayakas - controlled forts and had armed supporters. Often rebelled and had to be subdued by military action. Amara-nayaka system was major political innovation of Vijayanagara empire, most likely derived from iqta system of Delhi Sultanate. Amara-nayaka were military commanders who were given territories to govern by raya, collected taxes and other dues. Part of revenue used for own army maintenance, temples, rest for empire. Kings asserted their control by transferring them. By 17th century, many nayakas established independent kingdoms. 
• 7. Foreign Travelllers: Vijayanagara - was written about by - Nicolo de Conti, Abdur Razzaq, Afanasii Nikitin (all 15th century). Barbosa, Paes, Nuniz (16th century). Location feature - natural basin formed by Tungabhadra which flows in NE direction, surrounded by granite hills with number of streams. One of most arid zones in peninsula, hence elaborate arrangement to store rainwater and conduct to city. Most imp - Kamalapuram tank. Hiriya canal was used for irrigation, built by Sangamas. Forts encircled not just the city but also hinterland and forests. No mortar or cementing agent, stone blocks were wedged together. Agricultural tracts were incorporated within fortified area - to protect the agricultural belt and thus outlast any siege against the kingdom. Gateways with arch and dome were influenced from Indo-Islamic features. Urban core - entire area dotted with numerous shrines and small temples, supported by different communities.  Tanks, wells were sources of water.
• 8. Royal center - included over 60 temples, patronage of cult and temples was important as it justified divine authority. Superstructure of secular buildings was made of perishable materials such as mahanavami dibba. Massive platform on base 11k sq ft, base covered with relief carvings. Audience hall high platform with slots for wooden pillars. Their use remains an enigma.
• 9. Other buildings in royal center - Lotus Mahal (may have been meeting place with advisors), Elephant stables, Hazara Rama (used by king and family).
• 10. Sacred center - Pampadevi did penance in the hills to marry Virupaksha (Shiva), guardian deity of kingdom. This area has Jain temples from pre-Vijayanagara time as well. Temple building was encouraged - to give divine authority to king and use as learning center. Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of god Virupaksha. 
• 11. Hindu Suratrana - early Vijayanagara rulers called themselves this.
• 12. Mackenzie, Greenlaw, Fleet, Marshall - all were instrumental in discovery and conservation of Vijayanagara. 1986 declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• 13. Vijayanagar Empire - 1336-1672. 4 dynasties - Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva, Aravidu. Krishnadevaraya’s Amukthamalyada, Gangadevi’s Maduravijayam and Allasani Peddanna’s Manucharitam are some of the indigenous literature of this period. Travelers who wrote about - Moroccan Ibn Battuta, Venetian Nicolo de Conti, Persian Abdur Razzak and the Portuguese Domingo Paes & Fernao Nunes. Srirangam copper plates, Hampi ruins. 
• 14. Krishnadevaraya - Tuluva dynasty (founder Vira Narasimha). Won against Deccan Sultanate & marched till in Telangana & Odhisa. Was known as Andhra Bhoja. Eight eminent scholars known as Ashtadiggajas were at his royal court. Allasani Peddanna was the greatest and he was called Andhrakavita Pitamaga, wrote Manuchitram & Harikathasaram. Krishna Deva Raya himself authored a Telugu work, Amukthamalyadha and Sanskrit works, Jambavati Kalyanam and Ushaparinayam. Built Vittalswamy and Hazara Ramswamy temples in Vijayangar. New city called Nagalapuram.
• 15. During the reign of Rama Raya, the combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda and Bidar defeated him at the Battle of Talikota in 1565 (Rakshasa Thangadi). Rama Raya was imprisoned and executed. This battle was generally considered to mark the end of the Vijayanagar Empire though Aravidu dynasty ruled a kingdom for a century more. 
• 16. Administration - well organized. King enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial and legislative matters. Highest court of appeal. The Empire was divided into different administrative units called Mandalams, Nadus, sthalas and finally into gramas. The governor of Mandalam was called Mandaleswara or Nayak. Vijayanagar rulers gave full powers to the local authorities in the administration. Land revenue 1/6 of produce. Harsh punishments like mutilation and throwing to elephants followed. Amaram (lands given to Nayaks/Poligars or military officers in lieu of service).
• 17. Social - Peddanna refers to 4 castes. Foreigners left vivid accounts about the splendor and luxurious life of citizens. Kings were mostly Vaishnavaites but tolerant towards all religions. The position of women had not improved. However, some of them were learned. Gangadevi, wife of Kumarakampana authored the famous work Maduravijayam. Hannamma and Thirumalamma were famous poets of this period. 
• 18. Economic - Wealthiest part of the world at the time. New tanks and dams built to stimulate agriculture. Chief gold coin called varaha. Cannanore, port on Malabar was main. Foreign trade + art of shipping developed. 
• 19. Culture - chief characteristics of the Vijayanagara architecture were the construction of tall Raya Gopurams or gateways and the Kalyana mandapam with carved pillars in the temple premises. The most important temples of the Vijayanagar style were found in the Hampi ruins or the city of Vijayanagar. Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples were the best examples of this style. The Varadharaja and Ekamparanatha temples at Kanchipuram stand as examples for the magnificence of the Vijayanagara style of temple architecture.